Sutton Trust, Tutoring: The New Landscape, 2023. 30% of pupils aged 11 to 16 in England report having had private tuition; 30% in the best-off households against 23% in the worst-off.
World Bank, From Chalkboards to Chatbots: Evaluating the Impact of Generative AI on Learning Outcomes in Nigeria, 2024. Six weeks of after-school tutoring with GPT-4 in nine public schools in Benin City; 0.23 standard deviations in English (up to 0.3 on some measures), equivalent to 1.5 to 2 years of business-as-usual schooling, at $48 per student. On the chart, an effect of 0.23 to 0.3 standard deviations places the average treated student at the 59th to 62nd percentile of the control group.
Kestin, Miller et al., “AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning”, Scientific Reports, June 2025. A randomised trial of 194 Harvard physics students; the AI tutor was given the correct solutions and limited to short replies. Effect size 0.73 to 1.3 standard deviations by quantile regression, 0.63 by linear regression which the authors note is depressed by a ceiling effect. On the chart, 0.73 to 1.3 standard deviations is the 77th to 90th percentile of the classroom group.
Wang, Demszky et al., Tutor CoPilot: A Human-AI Approach for Scaling Real-Time Expertise, Stanford, 2024. A randomised trial with tutors and students from underserved communities; +4 percentage points to mastery overall, +9 for students of the lowest-rated tutors.
UNESCO and the International Task Force on Teachers, Global Report on Teachers, 2024. 44 million additional teachers needed by 2030 to reach universal primary and secondary education.